ELA Chapter 4

CHAPTER IV

HUMAN LEARNING

4.1 Definition

Mayer (1982) stated that the relatively permanent change in person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience.

4.2 Categories of Variation in Human Learning

Categories of variation in human learning, consisting of three item: 

1. Variation in types of learning intrinsic in cognitive tasks,
2. Variation in strategies individual uses,
3. Variation in personal cognitive styles of learning

According to Brown (1980) Second Language (L2) learning involves cognitive processes that consist of many types of learning and every individual make use of a variety of strategies and styles in order to master the language.

1.  Types of  Learning

Gagne  (1965:58-59) classified eight types of learning :

a.    Signal learning. The individual learns to make a general response to a signal.

b.    Stimulus-response learning. The leaner acquires a precise response to a signal

c.    Chaining. What is acquired is a chain of two or more stimulus – response  connection.

d.    Verbal association. It is the learning of chains that are verbal.

e.    Multiple discrimination. The individual learn to make a number of different identifying responses to many different stimuli, which may resemble each other in physical appearance.

f.     Concept learning.  The learner acquires the ability to make a common response to a class of stimuli even thought the individual members of that class may differ widely from each other.

g.    Principle learning. A principle is a chain of  two or more concepts.

h.    Problem solving.  It is a kind of learning that requires  the internal events usually referred to as “thinking”.

The process of  second language (L2)  learning can be categorized and sequenced efficiently in cognitive  terms by means of the eight types of learning:

a.  Signal learning – generally happens in the total language process.

b.  Stimulus-response – learning is apparent in the acquisition of the sound system of a foreign language.

c.  Chaining – is clearly observable in the acquisition of phonological sequences and syntactic patters.

d.  Verbal and non-verbal chains distinction – is not a separate type of language learning.

e.  Multiple discriminations – are necessary especially in the L2 learning where a word has to take on several meanings.

f.   Concept learning – includes the nation that language and cognition are interrelated.

g.  Principle learning – is the extent of concept learning to the formation of a linguistic system.

h.  Problem solving – is evidence in L2 learning since the learner is continually confronted with sets of events that are really problem to be solve.

2.     Strategies of Learning

Two basic categories of strategies can be distinguished in language learning : learning strategies and communication strategies. According to Brown (1980:83), a learning strategy is a method of perceiving and storing particular items for later recall. By contrast, a communication strategy is a method of achieving communication, of encoding or expressing meaning in a language. Although there is a strong relationship between the two types of strategy above, they are clearly different in their manifestation.

a.            Learning Strategy (LS)

Definition:

John Dewey  (1910) described  problem solving  a process as consisting of five stages:

1)      A state of doubt, cognitive complexity frustration, or awareness of difficulty.

2)      An attempt to identify the problem, including a nonspecific designation of the ends that are sought, the gap to be filled, or the goal to be reached, as defined by the situation that sets the problem.

3)      Relating these problem propositions to cognitive structure, thereby activating  relevant background ideas and previously achieved problem salutations which, then, are reorganized (transformed) in the form of problem solving propositions or hypotheses.

4)      Successive testing of the hypotheses and reformulation of the problem if necessary.

5)      Incorporating the successful solution into cognitive structure (understanding it) and applying it both to the problem at hand and to other exemplars of the same problem.

Mayer (1988) defined LS as behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information.

Tarone (1983) defined a LS as an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language -- to incoporate these into one's interlanguage competence

Rubin (1987) stated that LS are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly.

O'Malley and Chamot (1990) defined LS as the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information

b.      Language Learning Strategies (LLS)

Definition:

Oxford (1992) defined LLS specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These strageties can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability.

There are four terms which are commonly explained in the literature on language learning strategies, namely: Transfer, Interference, Simplification, and Overgeneralization.The terms are going to elaborated in set of pairs based on its association.

(1)   Transfer and Interference

According to Brown, 1980, Positive transfer happens when the prior knowledge benefits the learning task, that is, when a previous item is correctly utilized in the present subject matter.  The positive transfer can be referred to as Transfer, which  is a general term that describes teh carryover of previous performance or knowledge to subsequent learning.

e.g:

L1: Indonesian, L2: English

Transfer
I would like to order some waters, please	è	I would like to order some water, please
They study English lesson yesterday.	è	They studied English lesson yesterday

By contrast, Negative Transfer happens when the previous performance hinders the performance on a second task. The negative transfer can be referred to as interference.

e.g:

L1: Indonesian, L2: English

Interference
“Excuse me, I want to go back”		“Excuse me, I want to wash my hand”
A: “Thank you” B: “Same – same”		A: “Thank you” B: “You’re welcome”
“Sorry, I didn’t go to campus, because my body is not delicious”		“Sorry, I didn’t go to campus, because I’m not feeling well.”

(2)   Generalization and Simplification

To generalize means “to infer or drive a law, rule, or conclusion, usually based on observation of special instances.” Meaningful learning is really generalization, in the sense that, items are subsumed (generalized) under high-order categories for meaningful retention. Much of human learning is a process of generalization.

The learning of concepts in early childhood is a process of generalizing. (Brown, 1980:86). In the literature of on L2 acquisition, interference is almost as frequent a term as overgeneralization. Brown illustrates generalization and overgeneralization as follows:

A child has been exposed to various kinds of animals gradually acquires a generilized concept of “animal”. However, that same child at an early stage of generalization, in his familiarity with dogs, might see a horse for the first time and overgeneralize the concept of “dog” and call the horse a dog. Likewise, a number of animals might be put into a category of “dog” until the general attributes of larger category, “animals” have been acquired.

Two polars aspects of the generalization process:

(a)       Inductive reasoning

A person stores a number of specific instances and induce the general law or rule or conclusion which governs or subsumes the specific instances. It is used to infer superordinate principles or rules from day-to-day linguistic input the learner receives.

e.g:

L1: Indonesian, L2: English

Students practice using irregular verb in past

Regular Past Verb	Irregular Past Verb
wake – woke – woken take – took – taken write – wrote – written	Walk – walked – walked Study – studied – studied Stop – stopped - stopped
Dream – dreamt/dreamed – dreamt/dreamed

Yesterday I woke up at 4.30 a.m.

Yesterday I took bath at 5 a.m.

Yesterday I wrote a letter to my friend.

Yesterday I walked to school.

Etc.

(b)       Deductive reasoning

The reasoning movement from a generalization to specific instances, that is, specific subsumed facts are inferred or deduced from a general principle.

e.g:

The grammatical rule is presented and the student is required to supply instances of that rule through drills and exercises.

L1: Indonesian, L2: English

Students practice using irregular verb in past

I wake up at 5 a.m yesterday

I waked up at 5 a.m yesterday

I woked up at 5 a.m yesterday

I woke up at 5 a.m yesterday

Brown differentiates two learning situations:

1. Second language in the field (natural, untutored language learning). The acquirer must infer from all the data around him certain rules and meanings.
2. Classroom learning, usually involves a mixture of both types of reasoning, inductive and deductive.

(3)       Simplification

It is a term used in references on second language acquisition. All human learning is basically simplification. i.e, the process of uncomplicating, “of educing events to a common denominator, to as few parts as possible. Meaningful learning is simplification, that is, a process of storing items so that a few higher order features lead to more and more lower-order features, (Brown, 1980). The author further states that simplification has similar meaning to generalization, buit simplification can be contrasted with complexification, that is, the act of discovering many varied parts of the whole. Sometimes complexification is needed in order to counteract a tendency to oversimplify, to overgeneralize to the point of omitting essential parts of the whole.

e.g:

- He lives in a house, which he has been living for two years, with his  family.

- Mathematics, which I dislike, is one of the subject to be tested in National Exam.

- I just sent e-mail to my boss, who always desires to see my upcoming project, concerning the meeting agenda.

(4)       Overgeneralization

Overgeneralization has been used to refer to a strategy in second language acquisition in which the L2 learner acts within the target language. He generalizes a special rule or item in the L2 beyond legitimate bounds. At a particular phase of learning english as a native language, children have been observed to all overgeneralize regular past-tense endings (walked, opened) as applicable to all past-tense forms (goed, flied) until they recognize a subset of verbs that belong to a irregular category. Like L1 learners, L2 learners will overgeneralize within the target language.

Brown (1980) illustrates typical examples in learning English as an L2 including:

(a)  Past-tense regularization

(b)  Negativization

Negativization requires insertion of auxilary before the verb

e.g: John doesn’t can study

(c) Indirect sentences

e.g:

He told me when should I get off the train.

(Indirect discourse requires normal word order, not question word order, after wh word).

Those rules have special constraints, learners are unaware due to these, there fore, they over generalize them.

However, interference of the L1 in L2 is only a form of generalizing that takes L1 experiences and applies incorrectly. By contrast, overgeneralization is the incorrect application (negative transfer) of previously learned L2 item to a present L2 context. Brown states that all transfer involves generalizing and all generalizing involves transfer.

The Characteristics of LLS

Oxford (1990):

1. LLS are learner generated; they are steps taken by language learners.
2. LLS enhance language learning and help develop language competence, as reflected in the learner's skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the L2 or FL.
3. LLS may be visible (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes).
4. LLS involve information and memory (vocabulary knowledge, grammar rules, etc.).

Why are LLS Important for L2/FL Learning and Teaching?

Oxford (1990):

The term LLS is used more generally for all strategies that L2/FL learners use in learning the target language, and communication strategies are therefore just one type of LLS. For all L2 teachers who aim to help develop their students' communicative competence and language learning, then, an understanding of LLS is crucial. LLS "...are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence.

Rubin (1975):

In addition to developing students' communicative competence, LLS are important because research suggests that training students to use LLS can help them become better language learners

O'Malley and Chamot (1990):

effective L2/FL learners are aware of the LLS they use and why they use them. Graham's (1997) work in French further indicates that L2/FL teachers can help students understand good LLS and should train them to develop and use them.

Skehan (1989):

there is always the possibility that the 'good' language learning strategies...are also used by bad language learners, but other reasons cause them to be unsuccessful

What Kinds of LLS are There?

Oxford (1990):

1.    Distinguishes between direct LLS, which directly involve the subject matter, i.e. the L2 or FL, and indirect LLS, which do not directly involve the subject matter itself, but are essential to language learning nonetheless.

2.    Each of these broad kinds of LLS is further divided into LLS groups. Oxford outlines three main types of direct LLS, for example. Memory strategies "aid in entering information into long-term memory and retrieving information when needed for communication. Cognitive LLS are used for forming and revising internal mental models and receiving and producing messages in the target language. Compensation strategies are needed to overcome any gaps in knowledge of the language. Also describes three types of indirect LLS. Metacognitive strageties to help learners exercise 'executive control' through planning, arranging, focusing, and evaluating their own learning. Affective LLS enable learners to control feelings, motivations, and attitudes related to language learning. Finally, social strategies "facilitate interaction with others, often in a discourse situation.

These six main types of LLS is found in Oxford, where they are further divided into 19 strategy groups and 62 subsets. Here, by way of example, we will briefly consider the social LLS that Oxford lists under indirect strategies. Three types of social LLS are noted in Oxford: asking questions, co-operating with others, and empathising with others. General examples of LLS given in each of these categories are as follows:

Asking questions

1.    Asking for clarification or verification

2.    Asking for correction

Co-operating with others

1.    Co-operating with peers

2.    Co-operating with proficient users of the new language

Empathising with others

1.    Developing cultural understanding

2.    Becoming aware of others' thoughts and feelings

Using LLS in the Classroom

This section provides an overview of how LLS and LLS training have been or may be used in the classroom, and briefly describes a three step approach to implementing LLS training in the L2/FL classroom.

LLS and LLS training may be integrated into a variety of classes for L2/FL students. One type of course that appears to be becoming more popular, especially in intensive English programmes, is one focusing on the language learning process itself.

Step 1: Study Your Teaching Context

At first, it is crucial for teachers to study their teaching context, paying special attention to their students, their materials, and their own teaching. If you are going to train your students in using LLS, it is crucial to know something about these individuals, their interests, motivations, learning styles, etc. By observing their behaviour in class, for example, you will be able to see what LLS they already appear to be using. Do they often ask for clarification, verification, or correction, as discussed briefly above? Do they co-operate with their peers or seem to have much contact outside of class with proficient L2/FL users? Beyond observation, however, one can prepare a short questionnaire that students can fill in at the beginning of a course, describing themselves and their language learning. Talking to students informally before or after class, or more formally interviewing select students about these topics can also provide a lot of information about one's students, their goals, motivations, and LLS, and their understanding of the particular course being taught.

Beyond the students, however, one's teaching materials are also important in considering LLS and LLS training. Textbooks, for example, should be analysed to see whether they already include LLS or LLS training. Audiotapes, videotapes, hand-outs, and other materials for the course at hand should also be examined for LLS or for specific ways that LLS training might be implemented in using them. Perhaps teachers will be surprised to find many LLS incorporated into their materials, with more possibilities than they had imagined. If not, they might look for new texts or other teaching materials that do provide such opportunities.

teachers need to study their own teaching methods and overall classroom style. One way to do so is to consider your lesson plans. Do they incorporate various ways that students can learn the language you are modelling, practising or presenting, in order to appeal to a variety of learning styles and strategies? Does your teaching allow learners to approach the task at hand in a variety of ways? Is your LLS training implicit, explicit, or both? By audiotaping or videotaping one's classroom teaching an instructor may objectively consider just what was actually taught and modelled, and how students responded and appeared to learn. Is your class learner-centred? Do you allow students to work on their own and learn from one another? As you circulate in class, are you encouraging questions, or posing ones relevant to the learners with whom you interact? Whether formally in action research or simply for informal reflection, teachers who study their students, their materials, and their own teaching will be better prepared to focus on LLS and LLS training within their specific teaching context.

Step 2: Focus on LLS in Your Teaching

After you have studied your teaching context, begin to focus on specific LLS in your regular teaching that are relevant to your learners, your materials, and your own teaching style. If you have found 10 different LLS for writing explicitly used in your text, for example, you could highlight these as you go through the course, giving students clear examples, modelling how such LLS may be used in learning to write or in writing, and filling in the gaps with other LLS for writing that are neglected in the text but would be especially relevant for your learners.

If you tend to be teacher-centred in your approach to teaching, you might use a specific number of tasks appropriate for your context from the collection by Gardner and Miller (1996) in order to provide students with opportunities to use and develop their LLS and to encourage more independent language learning both in class and in out-of-class activities for your course. As Graham (1997) declares, LLS training needs to be integrated into students' regular classes if they are going to appreciate their relevance for language learning tasks; students need to constantly monitor and evaluate the strategies they develop and use; and they need to be aware of the nature, function and importance of such strategies. Whether it is a specific conversation, reading, writing, or other class, an organised and informed focus on LLS and LLS training will help students learn and provide more opportunities for them to take responsibility for their learning.

Step 3: Reflect and Encourage Learner Reflection

However, in implementing LLS and LLS training in the L2/FL classroom, purposeful teacher reflection and encouraging learner reflection form a necessary third step. On a basic level, it is useful for teachers to reflect on their own positive and negative experiences in L2/FL learning. Beyond contemplating one's own language learning, it is also crucial to reflect on one's LLS training and teaching in the classroom. After each class, for example, one might ponder the effectiveness of the lesson and the role of LLS and LLS training within it. Do students seem to have grasped the point? Did they use the LLS that was modelled in the task they were to perform? What improvements for future lessons of this type or on this topic might be gleaned from students' behaviour? An informal log of such reflections and one's personal assessment of the class, either in a notebook or on the actual lesson plans, might be used later to reflect on LLS training in the course as a whole after its completion.

In addition to the teacher's own reflections, it is essential to encourage learner reflection, both during and after the LLS training in the class or course. In an interesting action research study involving guided reflection Nunan (1996) did this by asking his students to keep a journal in which they completed the following sentences: This week I studied..., I learned..., I used my English in these places..., I spoke English with these people..., I made these mistakes..., My difficulties are..., I would like to know..., I would like help with..., My learning and practising plans for the next week are...Sharkey (1994) asked her learners to complete simple self- evaluation forms at various points during their course. Matsumoto (1996) used student diaries, questionnaires, and interviews to carry out her research and help her students reflect on their LLS and language learning. Pickard (1996) also used questionnaires and follow-up interviews in helping students reflect on their out-of- class LLS. In a writing class, Santos (1997) has used portfolios to encourage learner reflection. These are just a few examples from the current literature of various ways to encourage learner reflection on language learning. As Graham declares, For learners, a vital component of self-directed learning lies in the on-going evaluation of the methods they have employed on tasks and of their achievements within the...programme. Whatever the context or method, it is important for L2/FL learners to have the chance to reflect on their language learning and LLS use.

3.Styles of learning

The way we learn thing in general and the particular solution we make to a problem seems to relate to the link between personality and cognition. This link called cognitive style. Several cognitive style constructs have been identified through research. Before starting to discuss the five types of cognitive style, we will define it according to some researcher. Based on Ausbeul (1968: 170) defines cognitive style as self consistent and enduring individual differences in cognitive organization and functioning.  Brown (1980) stated that cognitive style mediate between emotion and cognition.

There are five cognitive styles that are relevant to L2 learning:

(1)       Field independence and Field dependence

Field independence (FI) style is the ability to perceive a particular item or factor in a ‘field’ of distracting items. On the other hands, Field dependent (FD) style is the tendency to de ‘dependent’ in the total field.

 In psychological terms, the ‘field’ may comprise the different things, it may be perceptual; it maybe more abstract; such as ideas, thoughts, or feelings.  On the other hand, dependence style parts emended within the field are not easily perceive although then total field is perceived more apparently as a unified whole.

Both field independent and field dependent styles have advantages and disadvantages. Some of advantages of FI are:

1. It is enable to differentiate parts from a whole;
2. To concentrate on something (  like reading a book is noisy in bus) ; and
3. To analyze separate variable without the contamination of neighboring variables.

On the other hand, the disadvantages of FI are among others:  too much field independence can cause cognitive “tunnel vision which makes you see only the parts and fail to see their relationship to a whole.  In example: you cannot see the forest for the trees.

Whereas the advantages of field dependent follow; you can perceive the whole picture, the larger view about something. It is a general configuration of a problem, or idea, or event.

As the result of FID style On FID, the person tend to be dominant in one mode of field independence – dependence or other; FID is a relatively stable aspect; That FI increase as a child matures to adulthood. But In the Western culture males tend to be more FI. FI associated to one of the three major factors used to define intelligence, i.e., analytical factors, verbal comprehension, and attention concentration.

Affectively, people who are more FI tend to be generally more independent and self confident. Whereas, FD people tend to be more socialized, tend to be derive their self- identity from people around them, and are usually more emphatic and perceptive of the others’ feelings and thoughts. Guiora (1972) and Brown (1977) supported that The two styles are important, because they deal with two different kinds of language learning. The first kind of learning involves natural, face-to-face communication. The second kind of learning includes familiar classroom activities, such as drills, exercises, tests, and so on.

On short, the natural language acquisition in the ‘field’  may also prove to prove to be meaningful way to differentiate child and adult language acquisition.  Krashen (1977) suggested that adults use more monitoring (learning) strategies (conscious attention to the form) for language acquisition whereas the children make use of acquisition strategies (subconscious attention to the function) .

(2)          Reflectivity and Impulsivity

The second type of cognitive style is Reflectivitiv and Impulsivity. Our personalites sometimes show certain tendencies toward reflectivity and at other times impulsivity. Psychological studies have been carried out to determine the extent to which a person’s cognitive domain, in one hand , tends to make either a quick, or gambling ( impulsive ) guess at an answer to a problem, or , on, the other hand, tends to be slower, more calculated      (eflective ) decision. David Ewing ( 1977 ) puts forward two styles which are closely related to the reflectivity impulsivity dimension, i,e, systematic and intuitive styles an intuitive style refers to an approach where a person makesa number of different gambles on the basis of “ strong intuitive feeling “ with several successive gambles before a solution is achieved. By contrast, systematic thinkers tend to weigh all the considerations in problem, work out all the ambiguites, then  after extensive reflection, carefully determine a solution.

There are many implications of Reflectivity and Impulsivityon L 2  acquisition. (1) it has been found that children who are reflective tend to make fewer errors in reading than impulsive children (Kagan, 1965) ; however,    (2) impulsive people are usually faster readers , an (3) master the “ psycholinguistic guessing games “ (Goodman 1970) of reading. (4) Therefore, such impulsive style of reading may not hinder comprehension. In another investigation, (5) inductive reasoning was found to be more effective with reflective  people (Kagan, Pearson, and Welch 1966). Their study suggests that in general (6) reflective people  could benefit more from inductive learning situations . In L2    Her study showed that (7) reflective students were slower but more accurate than impulsive students in reading.

For classroom L2 learning and teaching, reflectivity – impulsivity has some important considerations. For example, (1) teachers tend to consider mistakes too harshly, especially in the case of a learner with an impulsive style whomay be more willing to gamble at a correct answer than a reflective person. On the other hand, (2) a reflective person may need patience from the teacher, who must allow more time for the students to struggle with responses. It is also understandable that (3) those with impulsive styles may go through a number of rapid transitions of semigrammatical stages of interlangaunge.

                                                                                       

(3)       Tolerance and Intolerance of Ambiguity

The third cognitive style deals with tolerance and intolerance of ambiguity. Tolerence of ambiguity refers to the extent to which you are cognitively willing to tolerate ideas and propositions that contradict with your own belief system or structure of knowledge. For example, (1) some students are relatively “ open minded” in accepting ideologies, events and facts that condradict their own views ; (2) they are more willing to entertain than othes and (3) even internalize contradictory propositions. On the other hand,other people who belong to a group of intolerance of ambiguity  (a) are more “ closed – minded, “(b) more dogmatic, (c) tend to reject items that are contradictory with their existing system ; they (d) expect that Every proposition fits into an acceptable place in their cognitive organization, and if it does not fit, it is refused.

There are advantages and disadvantages in both tolerance and intolerance cognitive style. Advsntsges of tolerant persons the people who are tolerant of ambiguity are ( a) free to entertain a number of innovative and ofeative possibities and (b) not be cognitively or affectively distrubed by ambiguity and uncertainty. In L 2 learning a great amount of contradictory information is encountered. For example,word that are different fromn the L 1, rules “ exceptions”, and sometimes a whole cultural system that is far from that the L1 culture.  ( c ) successful languange learning requires tolerance of such ambiguity may result In a dama ging effect. Among other are: ( a) a students can become “ wishy – washy “, accepting every propositon before him, (b) not efficiently subsuming necessary facts into his cognitive organizational structure, (c) having the effect of preventing meaningful  encompass of ideas. For example, linguistic rules might not be effectively intergrated into a whole system instead they may be swallowed hurriedly in rotely learned, meaningless chunks.

Like tolerance of ambiguity,  intolerance of ambiguity also has advantages and disadvantages. Advantages of intolerant persons:  A certain intolerance at an optimal level enable you: (a) to protect against wishy – washiness described above,  (b) to close off avenues of hopeless possobilities.  (c)  to reject entirely contradictory material, and(d) to deal with the reality of the system that someone has built. Disadvantages of intolerant persons: (a) intolerance can close the mind too soon, particulary if ambiguity is perceived as a threat, (b) the results is a rigid, dogmaticm brittle mind that is too narrow To be creative, and (c) intolerance maybe especially harmful in L2 learning.

(4)      Broad and Narrow Category Width

The sentence above means that people have to categorize items either broadly or narrowly. Narrow categorize learners are more willing to take the risk of being wrong in problem-solving situations by using to ‘smaller’ subordinate concepts while broad categorize learners may choose a larger slice of the pie in an attempt to encompass more possibilities.

(5)       Skeletonization and Embroidery

This cognitive style is referred for some individuals to skelitenize and others to embroider in the recall of cognitive material, related to the distinction between simplification and complexification  strategies. The need to simplify the representation and storage in cognitive structure is perhaps universal.  The research of Holzman and Gardner 1960, Uhlman and Saltz 1965 supports the idea that simplification strategies have interindividual variations. For example, in the recall of narrative materials skelitenizing covers “pruning” out some particulars by keeping a substantive core of general facts which encompass the details. On the other hand, embroidering includes “importing” , or adding some material in order to keep original details might be forgotten.

According to Brown (1980), embroidery is a natural offshoot of human intellectual tendency toward closure, one sometimes perceives something that is not present in the data only because he extrapolates beyond the apparent stimuli.  A study by Carmichael, Hogan and Walter (1932) showed how embroidery can be verbally stimulated. Skeletonization-embroidery has been known that “yarn-spinners” who express countless exaggerated additions in telling or retelling the story. Besides, it is also common to get people who provide only the bare facts of an event.

The choice of skelitenization-embroidery play an important role in the evaluation of comprehension and production in L2 learning. Writing skill might be a suitable area to investigate how the tendency to embroider or skeletonize associates with style, efficiency, and teachability of writing. It is appropriate to consider embroidery as more desirable in some situations and skeletonizing as more appropriate in others. In the future, it is suggested to conduct a careful study of this feature of cognitive style which might assist to indicate how such preferences may influence actual language acquisition.