ELA Chapter 2

CHAPTER II

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (L2)

2.1 Definition

A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas. A person's first language may not be their dominant language, the one they use most or are most comfortable with. For example, the Canadian census defines first language for its purposes as "the first language learned in childhood and still spoken", recognizing that for some, the earliest language may be lost, a process known as language attrition. This can happen when young children move, with or without their family (because of immigration or international adoption), to a new language environment.

2.2 Theories

a.    Behaviorist theory (B.F. Skinner)

b.    Cognitive theory

c.    Humanistic approach

d.    Post modern (Constructive)

1. Behaviorist theory

Behaviorist theory forms the basis of positive and negative feedback, body language, repetition and direct teaching. The major proponent of the basis of positive and negative feedback was B.F. Skinner who stated that “Actions followed by an immediate positive effect tend to be repeated and actions followed by an immediate negative effect tend to be discontinued”

Body language’s emphasis on association of body movement and language and also focuses on the non verbal signals that are communicated during speech. This is especially useful during the non-verbal stage of language acquisition. Repetition uses continuous training/repetition to enforce language behaviour and syntax, often through use of recordings (audio and video).

Direct teaching methods are used to give out explicit instructions to students, often with a given objective and emphasis is placed on rules, sequences and facts.

2. Cognitive Theory

Cognitive theory uses various techniques for language learning. Among them are Chomsky’s generative grammar, Krashen’s monitor model and Information processing theories. Chomsky’s generative grammar tries to define a set of rules that can predict the construction of a sentence, using a combination of words in a language. The rules will also predict the morphology of the sentence.

Krashen’s monitor model states that adults have two independent systems for developing a second language. One is subconscious acquisition and conscious learning. Monitor theory claims that subconscious learning is more important than conscious learning and conscious learning is used only as a monitor. I.e. we may have fluency in a particular language based on our interactions and what we have picked up and will use the conscious learning to alter our output before or after speaking.

Information processing theory theorizes that there are three kinds of memory: Short term memory (STM), sensory registers and long term memory (LTM). For language to be learned successfully the information may also be broken into manageable chunks of information. The language is then taught by receiving patterns, images and sounds. The STM is enhanced through memory games. LTM is enforced based on structures and concepts.

3. Humanistic Approach

Humanistic approach takes into consideration the feelings, motivation levels and confidence of a person. It tries to instil positive emotions that help language acquisition such as self-esteem, motivation, empathy and risk taking. It also tries to dampen negative emotions such as low self confidence, anxiety and nervousness and mental inhibition.

4. Post Modern (Constructive)

Post modern (Constructive) takes into consideration the nature of the learner, his cultural background is considered very important. The responsibility to learn fully rests with the learner. Also the teacher is seen as a facilitator and not as an instructor.

The emphasis is more on the content and the learners own understanding of the content. There is a dynamic interplay between the facilitator and learner and both are equally involved in learning from each other. It also encourages the learners to collaborate with each other to arrive at a shared understanding. This is directly opposite to traditional competitive environment. The context in which the learning is done is also considered very important.

The learning is done in the form of a complex array of facts, problems and perceptions. That is why the selection, scope and sequencing of the learning matter is very important. Students need to be continuously challenged just beyond their current ability.

2.3 Stages of Children’s Second Language Acquisition

Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell (1983) first explored five stages of second language acquisition:.

Stage I: The Silent/Receptive or Preproduction Stage

This stage approximately lasts from 10 hours to six months. Students often have up to 500 “receptive” words (words they can understand, but may not be comfortable using) and can understand new words that are made comprehensible to them.

This stage often involves a “silent period” during which students may not speak, but can respond using a variety of strategies including pointing to an object, picture, or person; performing an act, such as standing up or closing a door; gesturing or nodding; or responding with a simple “yes” or “no.” During this stage, teachers should not force students to speak until they are ready to do so.

Stage II: The Early Production Stage

He early production stage can last an additional six months after the initial stage. Students have usually developed close to 1,000 receptive/active words (that is, words they are able to understand and use).

During this stage students can usually speak in one- or two-word phrases, and can demonstrate comprehension of new material by giving short answers to simple yes/no, either/or, or who/what/where questions.

Stage III: The Speech Emergence Stage

This stage can last up to another year. Students have usually developed approximately 3,000 words and can use short phrases and simple sentences to communicate. Students begin to use dialogue and can ask simple questions, such as “Can I go to the restroom?” and are also able to answer simple questions. Students may produce longer sentences, but often with grammatical errors that can interfere with their communication

Stage IV: The Intermediate Language Proficiency Stage

Intermediate proficiency may take up to another year after speech emergence. Students have typically developed close to 6,000 words and are beginning to make complex statements, state opinions, ask for clarification, share their thoughts, and speak at greater length.

Stage V: The Advanced Language Proficiency Stage

Gaining advanced proficiency in a second language can typically take from five to seven years. By this stage students have developed some specialized content-area vocabulary and can participate fully in grade-level classroom activities if given occasional extra support. Students can speak English using grammar and vocabulary comparable to that of same-age native speakers.

2.4 Factors Affecting Second Language Learning

1. Intelligence
2. Aptitude
3. Personality
4. Motivation and Attitude
5. Learner preferences
6. Learner beliefs
7. Age of acquisition

a.    Intelligence

Intelligence has multiple types:

Traditionally, intelligence refers to the mental abilities that are measured by an IQ (intelligence quotient) test. It usually measures only two types of intelligence: verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical intelligence. There are other types of intelligence such as spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence .

a.     Linguistic intelligence : speaking, using words, writing, giving presentations, solving word problems.

b.     Logical-mathematical intelligence : using numbers, logic, calculations; learning and understanding grammar rules.

c.     Spatial intelligence : drawing, painting, using color, art, graphics, pictures, maps, and charts.

d.     Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence : muscular coordination, athletic skill, body language, drama and theater.

e.     Musical intelligence : using music, tones, hearing; producing the intonation and rhythm of a language.

f.      Interpersonal intelligence : talking with other people, understanding them, using language to communicate.

g.     Intrapersonal intelligence : self-knowledge, self-confidence, using language to analyze yourself.

Intelligence, especially measured by verbal IQ tests, may be a strong factor when it comes to learning that involves language analysis and rule learning . On the other hand, intelligence may play a less important role in language learning that focuses more on communication and interaction . It is important to keep in mind that “intelligence” is complex and that a person has many kinds of abilities and strengths. An individual with strong academic performance does not necessarily mean that s/he is a successful second language learner.

b.    Aptitude

Aptitude refers to potential for achievement . An aptitude test is designed to make a prediction about an individual’s future achievements. Aptitude for language learning is usually composed of four different types of abilities:

1.        The ability to identify and memorize new sounds

2.        The ability to understand the function of particular words in sentences

3.        The ability to figure out grammatical rules from language samples

4.        The ability to memorize new words

Earlier research revealed a substantial relationship between aptitude for language learning and performance in foreign language that was taught with grammar-translation or audiolingual methods . However, aptitude seems irrelevant to L2 learning with the adoption of a more communicative approach to teaching (i.e., with a focus on meaning rather than on form). Successful language learners are not necessarily strong in all of the components of aptitude. (e.g., Some may have strong memories but only average ability to figure out grammatical rules.) Teachers can select appropriate teaching approaches and activities based on learners’ aptitude profiles to accommodate their differences in aptitude.

c.    Personality

There are a number of personality characteristics that are likely to affect L2 learning, such as

1.        Extroversion vs. Introversion

2.        Inhibition vs. risk-taking

3.        Self-esteem (self-confidence)

4.        Anxiety

5.        Empathy

Some studies have found that learners’ success in language learning is associated with extroversion such as assertiveness and adventurousness , while others have found that many successful language learners do not get high scores on measures of extroversion. Inhibition is a negative force for second language pronunciation performance. However, in general, the research does not show a clearly defined relationship between personality and SLA . The major difficulty is identification and measurement of personality characteristics. Personality may be a major factor only in the acquisition of conversational skills (i.e., oral communicative ability), not in the acquisition of literacy skills (i.e., reading and writing skills).

d.    Motivation & Attitude

Types of motivation (in terms of communicative needs):

External power wants the learner to learn L2 for a practical purpose (e.g., a corporation asks its staff to get language training). The learner wishes to achieve practical goals using L2 (e.g., for a career). Instrumental Someone else (e.g., the learner’s parents) wishes the learner to know L2 for an integrative reason. The learner wishes to learn L2 for personal growth and cultural enrichment. Integrative Extrinsic (External) Intrinsic (Internal) Purpose Source

Both integrative and instrumental types of motivation are related to success in L2 learning. Most L2 learning situations involve a mixture of each type of motivation. Research strongly favors intrinsic motivation , especially for long-term retention. Intrinsically motivated learners are striving for excellence, autonomy, and self-actualization. An individual’s identity and attitudes towards the second language community:

a.     Positive learning L2 is enrichment.

b.     Negative learning L2 is resentment.

Social dynamics and power relationships between L1 and L2.

1. Minority group members learning the language of a majority groups may have different attitudes and motivation from those of majority group members learning a minority language.
2. Think of why an ESL learner’s and an EFL learner’s attitude

Motivation in the classroom setting:

     a.       Motivating students in to the lesson.

     b.       Varying the activities, tasks, and materials to increase students’ interest levels.

      c.       Using cooperative rather than competitive goals to increase students’ self-confidence.

     d.       Creating a supportive and non-threatening learning atmosphere.

e.    Learner Preferences (Learning Styles)

a.     Learning style :

b.     An individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills (Reid 1995).

c.     Types of learning styles related to L2 learning:

1.        Perceptual learning styles:

2.        visual , aural/auditory , and haptic ( kinesthetic & tactile )

3.        Cognitive learning styles:

a.     field-independence vs. field- dependence

b.     reflectivity vs. Impulsivity

c.    right-brain dominance vs. left-brain dominance

d.    tolerance of ambiguity

f.      Learner Beliefs

Virtually all learners, particularly older learners , have strong beliefs about how their language instruction should be delivered. Learner beliefs are usually based on previous learning experiences and the assumption that a particular type of instruction is better than others.

The available research indicates that learner beliefs can be strong mediating factors in learners’ L2 learning process. e.g., L2 learners’ progress was negatively affected by an instructional approach that was not consistent with their beliefs about the best ways for them to learn. Learners’ preference for learning , whether due to their learning styles or to their beliefs about how language are learned, will influence the kinds of strategies they choose to learn new material.Teachers can use this information to help learners expand their repertoire of learning strategies and thus develop greater flexibility in their second language learning.

g.    Age of acquisition

The relationship between a learner’s age and his/her potential for success in second language learning is complicated . The relationship needs to take into account 1) the stage of L2 development , 2) the goals of learning L2 (i.e., In what aspects of the L2 the learner has achieved), and 3) the context in which the learner learns L2 (including language input, learning environment, and socio-cultural context).

L2 development in informal language learning environments where the TL is used primarily: Children can eventually speak the L2 with native-like fluency, but their parents and older learners (i.e., post-puberty learners) are hard to achieve such high levels of mastery of the spoken language , especially in pronunciation/accent . Adults and adolescents can make more rapid progress toward mastery of an L2 in contexts where they can make use of the language on a daily basis in social, personal, professional, or academic interaction.

L2 development in formal language learning environments (i.e., classrooms): In the early stages of the L2 development, older learners (adolescents and adults) are more efficient than younger learners (children). Learners who began learning an L2 at the elementary school level did not necessarily do better in the long run than those who began in early adolescent. It is more difficult for post-puberty learners to attain native-like mastery of the spoken language , including pronunciation , word choice , and some grammatical features .

At what age should L2 instruction begin? Those who support critical period hypothesis (CPH): Younger is better (particularly in the phonological achievement) Those who consider that the age factor cannot be separated from factors such as motivation , social identity , and the conditions for learning : Older learners may well speak with an accent because they want to keep their L1 identity , and the language input for adults is different from that for children because they rarely get access to the same quantity and quality of language input that children receive in play setting.

When the goal is basic communicative ability of the TL, rather than native-like mastery, and when children’s native language remains the primary language , it may be more efficient to begin L2 or FL learning later (e.g., in early adolescence – at age 10, 11, or 12). When learners receive only a few hours of instruction per week, those who start later often catch up with those who began earlier. One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced L2 speakers, no matter how young they were when they began learning.

Age is only one of the characteristics which affects the learner’s L2 learning. The opportunities for learning (i.e., context - both inside and outside the classroom), the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence , aptitude , personality , and learning styles have also been found to be important determining factors in both rate of learning and eventual success in learning.

The study of individual learner variables is not easy and the results of research are not entirely satisfactory, partly because of the lack of clear definitions and methods for measuring the individual characteristics and partly because of the complex interactions of those characteristics . Thus, it remains difficult to make precise predictions about how a particular individual’s characteristics influence his/her success as a language learner.

Even though the research findings are not conclusive in the relationship between personal factors and second language learning, teachers should take learners’ individual aptitudes, personalities, and learning styles into account to create a learning environment in which virtually all learners can be successful in learning a second language.